by R W M Johnson
Proceedings of the New Zealand Agricultural Economics Society 1992
I am indebted to Mr P.R. Stephens for considerable assistance in the preparation of this chapter as well as colleagues at Massey University.
The contribution of agricultural economists to outstanding achievements in agricultural science in New Zealand must be sought in the policy-forming area rather than in scientific research itself. Economists can analyse policy options and give advice on what actions to take, but are seldom found among the policy makers themselves. Achievements of the profession of economists must necessarily be assessed from the public documents available, and it would be difficult to state whether one contribution was more outstanding than another. This chapter is therefore based on the contribution to the development of agricultural economics as a discipline in New Zealand of a fairly wide selection of people both in the public policy formation and advice area and in the training of people for future administrative, teaching and executive roles. It seems likely that the contribution of some outstanding people may well be over-looked in this process, especially if their endeavours were hidden from view by the nature of their work or their lack of access to the means of publishing their results.
As early as 1894, the Official New Zealand Yearbook included well- written articles on agriculture in New Zealand. The authors are named as M. Murphy FLS, J.A. Johnstone, Dilnot Sladden and John Sawers. Frilm Proceedings of the NZ Agricultural Economics Society 1992
The development of an economic commentary on national events in the early years of this century was largely in the hands of general economists educated in the four main universities. The most significant of these in the 1920's were J.B. Condliffe, D.B. Copland and H. Belshaw. Condliffe assembled and analysed all the early trade and prices information in the Statistical Office for his M.A. thesis at Auckland prior to 1915, and on his 1920 appointment to the Chair of Economics at Canterbury (until 1927 when he went to the United States) he produced a large number of articles on New Zealand development, culminating (in 1931) with his pioneering book on the history of economic 'and social development, 'New Zealand in the Making'. It was Condliffe, who first referred to New Zealand as Britain's "distant farm" in the Economic Journal in 1919. Condliffe maintained his contacts with New Zealand and continued to make contributions to the general economic debate right up to the 1970's.
Copland produced a thesis on the economics of wheat production in New Zealand in 1915 (published in 1920) and later produced numerous articles on the general economy of New Zealand, though he had moved to Australia by 1917. Belshaw produced his M.A. thesis at Auckland in 1921 on the structure of the New Zealand dairy industry and went on to become professor at Auckland, and later at Victoria. Belshaw, perhaps, produced the most long-lasting series of publications on the New Zealand economy, with special emphasis on agriculture, and he was the author or the standard text on agricultural credit, published in 1931. Belshaw and Condliffe had cooperated on a survey of rural credit in New Zealand, published in 1925.
Belshaw was closely involved with Government administration throughout the 1920's and 1930's, as typified by his presentation to the National Industrial Conference of 1928, chaired by the Prime Minister, on the economic position of the farmer in New Zealand. The complete statement was published in the Appendices to the Journals of the House of Representatives, and in the Economic Record, the journal of the Economic Society of Australia and New Zealand (1928). Belshaw was also Director of the massive Institute of Pacific Relations research project on land utilisation in New Zealand, which culminated in the publication of the 818 page book 'Agricultural Organisation in New Zealand' (1936), and to which he contributed five chapters.
In the early 1920's, E.J. Fawcett was appointed as economist to the Department of Agriculture. Fawcett had studied agricultural economics at Cambridge after the war, and later went on to be Director-General of Agriculture from 1942 to 1957. In 1923 and 1924, Fawcett published a detailed study of the costs of operating a sixhorse team on Canterbury mixed cropping farms, based on a survey of 27 farms, apparently the first such survey carried out in the country.
Fawcett's conclusions were that variations existed in the cost of maintaining a six-horse team and that high costs were associated with under-utilisation either as a result of the farm being too small or the proportion of it devoted to cash and fodder crops being too low. Fawcett contributed to or directed many later studies of agriculture in New Zealand, including a major survey of dairy farms in 1929, the poultry industry in 1930, and (with W.N. Paton) a review of the livestock industry from 1901-02 to 1926-27. The latter was published in the Journal of Agriculture and the official Yearbook, and included the first use of 'stock units' (in terms of value) as a general measure of livestock trends. Fawcett contributed three chapters to Agricultural Organisation in New Zealand. In later years, Fawcett was one of those whose energies were fully absorbed by his work, and documentation of these things is necessarily scarce.
When A H Cockaye became Director-General in 1937 he instituted a more dynamic approach to the department's activities and Fawcett, as assistant Director-General, was able to playa wider role. But the threat of war meant that his energies were absorbed in the complexities of wartime administration which had only limited reference to normal conditions. He worked closely with B C Ashwin.at the Treasury and with one of the latter's assistants, M J Moriarty, who subsequently edited a useful collection of essays on New Zealand production and marketing (1963).
P W Smallfield also joined the department in the 1920's; his thesis on land utilisation in Waipa County was the first such exercise undertaken in New Zealand (1929). As a senior advisor in the Auckland area, he was actively engaged in the formulation of the management concepts as~ted with intensive pasture utilisation. Moving to Wellington during the war, he was, in 1944, put in charge of the newly established Rural Development Division. Its main functions were to help expand agricultural economics and farm management extension within the department. It also included a Rural Sociology section (Carter, 1986). Though the Division was merged with the Fields Division in 1948, it did bring together a number of people including R H Scott and J V White who were both associated with agricultural policy formulation in the 1950's and 1960's. Smallfield was DirectorGeneral of Agriculture from 1958 to 1962.
In the late 1920's the chair of economics at Otago was held by A.G.B. Fisher (1925-34), a New Zealander by birth but educated in Australia. He is most famous for his book (published in 1935) on the clash of progress and security in the development of the New Zealand economy. This book delineated the now familiar classification of industries as primary, secondary and tertiary, and advanced the
reasons for the ultimate growth of tertiary employment at the expense of primary and secondary output and employment. Less well known, perhaps, were a series of articles he wrote for the Economic Record on the protection of the wheat industry in New Zealand. While 1927 legislation had introduced a sliding scale tariff for wheat, Fisher was able to show that, by 1932, the objective of self-sufficiency had not been completely achieved.
F.B. Stephens was another economist who contributed many articles during the 1930's to the journals. Stephens was a former officer of customs and WEA tutor before being appointed to the Institute of Pacific Relations project in 1931 at Auckland University. After contributing no less than five chapters of the book on land utilisation in New Zealand, Stephens went on to work for the Department of Internal Affairs, and was deputy chairman of the social science research bureau while it existed.
In 1929, developments in agricultural education in New Zealand, led to the appointments of the first lecturers in agricultural economics at the two agricultural colleges, Massey and Lincoln. D.O. Williams, a returned serviceman and lecturer at Victoria was appointed to Massey, where he stayed until 1935, when he was appointed a director of the Bank of New Zealand. Williams was appointed to the Royal Commission on the Dairy Industry in 1933 and was also an advisor to the Reserve Bank. As well as producing a number of learned articles on such topics as small-holdings for the unemployed and land settlement finance, Williams was Joint Editor and Acting Director of the Institute of Pacific Relations research project on land utilisation in New Zealand and personally contributed six chapters to the final report, 'Agricultural Organisation in New Zealand'.
The Royal Commission on the Dairy Industry was the first occasion when an economist was appointed to such high authority. The Commission, in its report in 1934, ranged over a wide field from the economic position of the individual dairy farmer to the appropriate
form and organisation of overseas marketing. It drew_on, among other things, a survey of 550 dairy farms organised by Fawcett, and the evidence from this source prompted the commission to decide "... that it is likely that at least 50 per cent of the dairy farmers of the Dominion are, in varying degrees, unable at the present time to meet their financial commitments". The Commission was concerned with the renewed selling competition between the dairy companies, and recommended that the Dairy Board be given wider powers to regulate marketing. The Commission was against the introduction of a guaranteed price. The Commission's warnings of the dangers of "weak selling" have for a long time been part of the "conventional wisdom", though of recent years the validity of such criticism has been called into question.
Dr I.W. Weston was appointed lecturer in agricultural economics at Lincoln in 1929, after G.A. Holmes had held the position for one year. Weston, under the auspices of the Department of Agriculture, had carried out a survey of the beef industry of the North Island for an MSc thesis in 1927, and was another returned serviceman, who had also worked in Tasmania. In a long career to 1958, Weston produced many articles on agriculture in New Zealand, including his well-known textbook on farm book-keeping (in conjunction with D.M. Malloch), and influenced several generations of students at Lincoln College with his unusual teaching methods and shrewd judgement. Weston contributed three chapters to 'Agricultural Organisation in New Zealand'. Among his students were W.S. Allan (1934), A.F. Greenall (1935), J.R. Fleming (1938), A.C. Norton (1951), M. Nelson (1952) and W.O. McCarthy (1954).
Earlier development of agricultural education in the 1920's had led to the introduction of degree courses in agriculture in 1926 (Blair, 1956). The statute for Masterate in Agricultural Science was established with eight subject options, one of which was agricultural
economics. According to Blair, P.W. Smallfield, A.H. Flay and C.E. Iverson completed the masters option in 1929 and L.W~ McCaskill in 1930. Most of the above students ultimately joined the staff at Lincoln College, and contributed, over many years, to the training and maturity of successive generations of students.
At Massey College, Williams was succeeded by H.B. Low in 1936. Low was a Canterbury graduate in economics who had been working with J.L. Buck in China. In a long association with Massey until 1960, Low contributed to the academic journals, undertook a major study of land values in New Zealand (for which he was awarded the Ph.D. of the University of London), and contributed to the training of successive generations of students. Among his graduate students should be mentioned E.M. Ojala (1941), M. Milliken (1947), R.W.M. Johnson (1953), and W.V. Candler (1955). All these served overseas in various positions, and have returned to New Zealand at different stages of their careers.
Independently of the general discussions on the role of agriculture in the national economy, Lincoln College developed through the 1930's, the farm management approach to agricultural economics. A.H. Flay had been appointed to the staff in 1928 as Pasture Research officer, and in 1932 was given responsibility for developing a college-based farm advisory service (Blair, 1956). Flay wrote a large number of papers on farm management aspects of Canterbury farming, including irrigation, and also contributed an important paper to the Economic Record in 1939 on the rehabilitation of farmers in New Zealand after the depression. The farm advisory service continues to the present day and is a tribute to Flay's learning, skill and sympathy for the ordinary farmer.
In 1937, E. R. Hudson, the newly appointed Director at Lincoln, and formerly of the Tasmanian Department of Agriculture, appointed R. H. Bevin (also from Tasmania) to the staff to develop the new valuation and farm management course to be run in cooperation with the
State Advances Corporation (H.M. Caselberg was the officer responsible). After 13 years of meritorious lecturing~and investigational work, Bevin resigned in 1950 to take up the newly created position of Director of the Economic Service of the Meat and Wool Boards. A.H. Flay was appointed associate professor (1950) as well as head of department and he remained responsible, along with stalwarts like H.E. Garrett and M.B. Cooke, for the teaching of the valuation and farm management diploma. Flay and Bevin worked out a unique approach to practical teaching requirements by an amalgam of practical experience, case studies, legal and institutional instruction to produce a whole generation of civil servants and other farm leaders (like Sir Ronald Trotter) that rose to the top of their respective professions. For reasons of expediency, the diploma was awarded out?ide the New Zealand university system. Only in the 1970's, were the degree and valuation courses put back on a common basis with the introduction of the bachelor of agricultural commerce courses at Lincoln.
In the North Island, interest in the development of the dairy industry.remained unabated. In 1937, H.G. Philpott had published his classic study on the history of the New Zealand dairy industry. With all the concern over the presentation and determination of the guaranteed price (introduced by the newly elected Labour Government in 1936) and the concern for the standard of living of the dairy farmers in this period, further research and investigation was encouraged. In 1939 a social science research bureau was established within the DSIR, . and out of its activities came W.T. Doig's 'A Survey of the Standard of Life of New Zealand Dairy Farmers', a penetrating analysis of the social condition of farmers together with (for the first time possibly) an appropriate statistical analysis of the survey returns. Apparently, Doig's results were unpopular and the social science bureau disappeared. DSIR interest continued, however, and W.M. Hamilton published his timely study of the dairy industry in 1944.
This combined economic analysis with a sound practical knowledge of the industry, and has been a standard reference for m~ny years. This study was followed by further surveys by the DSIR, one of Whangarei County (Mitchell, 1948, 1950) and one of Waipa County (Hutton, 1952, 1953, 1954). These reports combined extensive surveys of dairy farms over a period of years with advanced statistical analysis of the physical relationships affecting the productivity of livestock and the land.
The teaching of farm management at Massey College was consolidated by the appointment of J.N. Hodgson to the staff of the Dairy Husbandry department in 1944. Hodgson, a graduate of Massey in agricultural science, and who had taken the Lincoln farm management diploma in 1938, was given the task of amalgamating the previous courses which were based partly on agricultural economies and partly on animal husbandry. He resisted early pressures to emphasise accounting and based his teaching on the practical application of economic principles. He is remembered for his thought-provoking lectures and his systematic and disciplined approach to the subject. He retired in 1973. In 1952, N. Watson, also a diplomate from Lincoln, was appointed farm management lecturer in the Sheep Husbandry department. Watson brought experience from the State Advances Corporation, and continued to give sound practical case study instruction for the next twenty-six years.
With the retirement of Weston from Lincoln College in 1960, the College proceeded to appoint a full professor of agricultural economics. B.P. Philpott, of the Meat and Wool Boards' Economic Service, was appointed to the position. Philpott set in motion a full teaching programme of economics and statistics which in due course produced a number of outstanding graduates including J. McKenzie, C.A. Yandle, J.K. Chetwin, K. Sanderson, R. O'Malley and others. He also established, in 1962, with financial assistance from the DSIR (W.M. Hamilton) the Agricultural Economics Research Unit. Philpott was appointed to a chair at Victoria University in 1970,:and he was followed by B.J. Ross, another of his former Masterate students.
Philpott's period at Lincoln re-established to a considerable degree the linkage of agricultural economics with national economic policy that had prevailed in the inter-war years. A strong teaching and research programme was combined with participation in public debate that considerably raised the status of agricultural economics as a profession in this period. As a result, general economists have had much less input into discussions of agricultural policy in the post-war years.
A further development at Lincoln College was the establishment of cost-benefit analysis as a scientific discipline. Philpott had appointed J.T. Ward of Wye College, England, as senior lecturer in agricultural economics in 1961. Ward brought with him a knowledge of recent developments in the cost-benefit area in the United Kingdom, and was able to institute the first scientifically based course in cost-benefit analysis in New Zealand (Ward 1964). Although Ward moved on to the University of Waikato in 1964, his example was followed by a number of other practitioners like R.C. Jensen (1965). In recent years, the leadership in agricultural cost-benefit analysis has been taken over by the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries economists (R.N. Forbes, 1977, 1984) with assistance from University practitioners like A.D. Meister (1985).
When A.H. Flay retired from Lincoln in 1964, J.D. Stewart was appointed Professor of Farm Managemept. Stewart had established a reputation as a rural field cadet, a footballer and a lecturer in farm management (1951). He had taken his Ph.D. at the University of Reading. Stewart brought modern statistical and programming techniques into the teaching programme and in due course produced another crop of outstanding graduates like N.W. Taylor, L. Evans, and others. Stewart was succeeded by J.B. Dent in 1974 when he was made Principal of the College. Teaching at Lincoln is now an amalgam of the practical and the theoretical and the former divisiveness of the practical men versus the theorists has now been forgotten.
Back in the North Island, W.V. Candler was appointed to the chair of agricultural economics and farm management at Massey in 1961. All the teaching functions were now brought together in one department. A. B. Ward was appointed as senior lecturer in 1962., In 1966, Candler returned to the United States and was replaced by A.R. Frampton (in 1968). In 1980, Frampton became full-time Dean of Agriculture and was replaced by R.J. Townsley. As in the case of Lincoln College departments, the appointment of Candler instituted a new programme of teaching based on the vigorous application of theory and statistics to the problems of agriculture. The appointments of Frampton and Townsley, two of his outstanding students, to succeed him bears testimony to the thoroughness of his course work and the quality of leadership he provided.
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___________, and J.B. Condliffe, A Brief Survey of Rural Credit, NZ Journal of Science and Technology, Vol. 7, 1925.
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____________, Guaranteed Prices in Operation, Economic Record Supplement, Vol. 15, 1939.
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___________, The Welfare State in New Zealand, Allen and Unwin, 1959.
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___________, The Theory of Marketing with Special Reference to Primary Products, Economic Record Supplement, Vol. 4, 1928.
___________, New Zealand's Economic Difficulties and Expert Opinion, Economic Journal, Sept., 1932.
___________, The New Zealand Economic Problem, Economic Record, Vol. 8, 1932.
___________, The Economics of Insulation, Economic Record Supplement, Vol. 15, 1939.
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___________, Production, Primary, Secondary, Tertiary, Economic Record, Vol. 15, 1939.
Flay, A.H., An Economic Study of Lamb Fattening on Rape, M.Agr.Sc. thesis, Lincoln, 1928.
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___________, The Rehabilitation of Farmers in New Zealand, Economic Record Supplement, Vol. 15, 1939.
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__________, Dairy Farm Survey of Waipa County 1940-41 to 1949-50, DSIR Bulletin 112, 1954.
Iverson, C.E., An Economic study of Wheat Farms in Springs County, M.AGr.Sc. thesis, Lincoln, 1928.
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McCarthy, W.O., A Study of West Coast Farming, M.Agr.Sc. thesis, Lincoln, 1954.
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___________, The National Income of New Zealand, Economic Record, Vol.12, 1936.
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___________, and E.D. Parkes, An Economic Analysis of Large Scale Development for Agriculture and Forestry, Agricultural Economics Research Unit Publication No. 27, 1966.
Weston, I.W., The Beef Cattle Industry of the North Island, M.Sc. thesis, 1927.
___________, Farm Overhead Charges in New Zealand, Economic Record, Vol. 8, 1932.
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__________, with D.M. Malloch, Practical Farm Bookkeeping, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1935.
__________, The Business Side of Farming, Whitcombe and Tombs, 1956.
Williams, D.O., Land Settlement Finance in New Zealand, Economic Record, Vol. 8, 1932.
___________, Smallholdings for the Unemployed, Economic Record, Vol. 9, 1933.
___________, The Reserve Bank of New Zealand, Economic Record, Vol. 11, 1935.